How A CPU Works

How does a CPU (Central
Processing Unit) of a computer really work? Well, this article will
exactly how it works. Understanding this
fundamental concept will help you in grasping the overall concepts
of computing
much more easily.




The concept of a CPU is not really that difficult to understand -
although I know some folks make it appear more complicated than it has to
be.


Instructions in a computer are stored in memory. The CPU fetches these
instructions and executes them. It then decodes the instruction and sends
the task to the appropriate unit (e.g. hard disk, display). The speed at
which a CPU can perform the above tasks indicate the CPU's performance.


Read on and find out more about how a CPU works ...

 
 





Some CPUs available in the market

1. Instructions are Stored in Memory

The first thing to understand about CPUs is this - when programs run, their instructions are stored in
memory. The CPU fetches
instructions from the computer's memory to execute.

 

2. CPU Decodes the Instruction

The next step is for the processor to understand or decode the instruction and
determine what it has to do. Usually what happens is that the CPU will do some
form of computation, then stores it back to memory, the disk, or the
display.

 

3. How Many Instructions?

One question is, how many instructions can the CPU execution per
second? Well, this is determined by a of factors, including:

• 
  
  
  How large is the instruction contained in memory
  
   
  
  


• 
  
  
  How long it takes for the instruction to reach the CPU.
  
   
  
  


• 
  
  
  How long the processor takes to compute and crunch the instructions.
  
   
  
  


• 
  
  
  How long it takes to output the result of the processing.
  
  

Essentially, the number of instructions a CPU can execute per
second is an indication of its speed and performance.

 

Conclusion

Hopefully, this article has helped you understand how a CPU works. The CPU is a
central part of any computer system and it is certainly useful to grasp its
inner workings well.

  

How To Transfer Data From One Hard Drive To Another

Did you know that trying to transfer data from one hard drive to another is a big computing headache? I always face this problem when I try to upgrade my system or build a new computer. How do I ever get the data in my old hard disk into the new one? Well, this article shows you how you can do this. The simplest way is to use a disk imaging tool. A disk imaging tool is a computer builder's secret weapon for quickly moving data from one computer to the next. Make sure you familiarize yourself with these tools as they will save you a lot of time.

We will look at one of them and see how it works, so read on ...
1. Choose Your Tool

Before you start trying to transfer data from one hard drive to another, you need a proper tool. Acronis Migrate Easy is my tool of choice. If you ever wanted to install a brand new hard disk, migrate an operating system or copy hard drive data - this is the program to use. The utikity even allows one to wipe out data on an old hard drive and re-partition very neatly after the copying process.




The main screen of Acronis Migrate Easy



2. Install The New Hard Disk

Ok, let's assume you've just bought a new hard disk. You want to transfer your data, operating system and installed applications over to the new drive. To do this, you must first install the new hard disk in your computer as a slave hard drive. If you're not sure how to do it, then check out this tutorial on how to install a secondary hard disk drive.


3. Run The Program

Next, you need to run the Acronis Migrate Easy program. The program gives you two transfer modes: automatic and manual.




Selecting either the automatic or manual mode in Migrate Easy



If you specify automatic mode, all it takes is a few simple steps to transfer your data from your old hard drive to the new one. All partitions, applications, folders and files will be copied to the new disk. You're also allowed to make the new disk bootable for even more convenience.

If you select manual mode, there are more options available to you. Some of the things you will be able to do:


Select the partitioning and data transfer method


Define partition information on the new disk


Remove all information from the old disk


Create new partitions on the old disk


Conclusion

With a proper disk transfer tool like Acronis Migrate Easy, you no longer need to shy away when it comes to data transfers between hard disks. The more you transfer data from one hard drive to another, the more expertise you will gain. So go out there and start experimenting!

Reasons Why A Monitor Goes Blank

When I first started to
learn to troubleshoot PCs, I
found a blank monitor to be one of the most frustrating things I
encountered. With the screen blank, there's not a whole lot you can do
except to hit the power off button, check the connections and hit the power
on button again.

In this article, we'll look at the top 5
reasons why a monitor goes blank. Once you understand the reasons,
you'll understand how to troubleshoot the problem more easily.







1. Introduction


Computer monitor problems can be very hard to troubleshoot - I mean,
if your monitor goes blank, how do you check anything on your screen. So
that's why it's important to have 2 monitors in the house. Usually, if I
have my desktop PC's monitor going blank, I'll immediately hook up the
video card to another monitor. If the screen remains blank, then it
could point to a video card problem. If the new monitor displays an
image, then it's probably the first monitor that has run into problems.

A typical computer monitor - don't panic if it goes blank!

Reason 1: Wetness



The number one reason why computer monitors go blank is - wetness.
Believe it or not, when your computer monitor is exposed to humid air,
sometimes water can condense and accumulate in the monitor. This causes
the monitor to malfunction and go blank. I've had this happen to my
desktop PC at least three times before. What you need to do is to leave
the monitor alone for some time and allow the water to evaporate. That
usually solves the problem.




Reason 2: Faulty Graphics Card
The next reason why your computer monitor goes black is due to a
faulty graphics card. The best way to detect this kind of problem is to
connect up a new monitor to your PC, then check if you have a blank
screen. If you continue to have a blank screen, then it's likely your
video card is faulty.




Reason 3: Faulty RAM
This one is less obvious and less common, but it can happen. You
might sometimes get bad RAM modules which prevent your PC from booting
up even to the basic BIOS startup screen. To detect this kind of problem
is more troublesome, you might need to remove those RAM modules and
insert them into another computer.




Reason 4: Loose Connections
Another reason why your monitor goes blank is due to loose
connections. The connection from the monitor to the mains is usually a
culprit, as is the connection between the monitor and the video card.
Check those connections before you declare your computer monitor as
faulty.




Reason 5: A Short Circuit In The Motherboard
And the final reason why your computer monitor goes blank? It's
possibly because of a short circuit in the motherboard. This is the most
undesirable outcome of course, as you might have to replace your entire
motherboard. However, it's possible that this can happen - so keep your
fingers crossed and hope it doesn't happen to you.




Conclusion
And there you have it, the top 5 reasons why your computer monitor
goes blank. Make sure you do a mental check of the above points the next
time your monitor goes blank - don't be too quick to declare your
monitor as faulty. Until next time, happy computer building!

Troubleshooting Tips for a Network Card

1. 
   
   • 
     
     Make sure you're using the drivers that are on the
     driver’s disk that ships with the network interface card
     (NIC).
   
   
   • 
     
     Make sure the driver is loaded and the protocols are
     bound. Check the Device Properties list for trouble
     indicators (an "X" or "!" symbol).
   
   
   • 
     
     Test the NIC adapter with the diagnostic utilities that
     often came with the driver installation.
   
   
   • 
     
     Check with your LAN administrator - you may need to
     install additional networking software.
   
   
   
   


2. 
   If
   the problem persists, follow these guidelines:
   
   
   
   • 
     
     Make sure the cable is installed properly.
     The network cable must be securely attached at both RJ45
     connections (adapter and hub). The maximum allowable
     distance from adapter to hub is 100 meters. If the cable
     is attached and the distance is within acceptable limits
     but the problem persists, try a different cable. If
     you're directly connecting two computers without a hub
     or switch, use a crossover cable.
   
   
   • 
     
     Try another network cable.
   
   
   • 
     
     Check the LED Lights on the NIC.
     Before the LEDs can be used for troubleshooting, the
     network interface card (NIC) must be connected to the
     network and the network driver must be installed. Most
     NICs come with LEDs near the connection. The meaning of
     the LED signals may be different from one manufacturer
     to the other. Here is a common LED description for 3COM
     10/100BT dual speed NIC. Please consult your NIC manual
     for any difference.
   
   
   
   

LED	Description	Flashing	Steady (On)	Off
10 LNK	Green: Link integrity	Reversed polarity	Good 10BT connection	No connection between NIC & hub
100 LNK	Green: Link integrity	Reversed polarity	Good 100BT connection	No connection between NIC & hub
ACT	Yellow: Port traffic for either speed	Network traffic present	Heavy network traffic	No traffic

3. 
   The
   computer hangs when the drivers are loaded.
   
   
   
   • 
     
     Change the PCI BIOS interrupt settings. See your NIC and
     system manuals for more details.
   
   
   • 
     If
     you are using EMM386, it must be version 4.49 or newer.
   
   
   
   


4. 
   
   Diagnostics pass, but the connection fails or errors
   occur.
   
   
   
   • 
     At
     100BT, use Category 5 wiring and make sure that the
     network cable is securely attached.
   
   
   • 
     At
     100BT, connect to a 100BT hub/switch (not 100Base-T4).
     
   
   
   • 
     
     For NetWare, make sure you specify the correct frame
     type in your NET.CFG file.
   
   
   • 
     
     Make sure the duplex mode setting on the adapter matches
     the setting on the switch.
   
   
   
   


5. 
   The
   LNK LED doesn't light.
   
   
   
   • 
     
     Make sure you've loaded the network drivers.
     
   
   
   • 
     
     Check all connections at the adapter and the hub/switch.
     
   
   
   • 
     
     Try another port on the hub/switch.
   
   
   • 
     
     Make sure the duplex mode setting on the adapter matches
     the setting on the hub/switch.
   
   
   • 
     
     Make sure you have the correct type of cable between the
     adapter and the hub. 100Base-TX requires two pairs. Some
     hubs require a crossover cable while others require a
     straight-through cable.
   
   
   
   


6. 
   The
   ACT LED doesn't light.
   
   
   
   • 
     
     Make sure you've loaded the correct network drivers.
     
   
   
   • 
     
     The network may be idle. Try accessing a server.
     
   
   
   • 
     
     The adapter isn't transmitting or receiving data. Try
     another adapter.
   
   
   • 
     
     Make sure you're using two-pair cable for TX wiring.
     
   
   
   
   


7. 
   The
   adapter stopped working without apparent cause.
   
   
   
   
   • 
     
     Run the diagnostics program that came with the NIC.
     
   
   
   • 
     
     Try reseating the NIC in its slot, or try a different
     slot if necessary.
   
   
   • 
     
     The network driver files may be corrupt or missing.
     Remove the drivers and then reinstall them.
   
   
   
   


8. 
   The
   Wake on LAN (WOL) feature is not working.
   
   
   
   • 
     
     Make sure the WOL cable is attached and that power is
     being applied to the computer.
   
   
   • 
     
     Check the BIOS for its WOL setting. Some computers may
     need to be configured for WOL.
   
   
   • 
     
     Make sure the network cable is fully attached to the
     adapter.
   
   
   
   


9. 
   
   Crossover cable troubleshooting tips.
   When
   you work with network cabling, concentrators (hubs or
   switch), and NICs from different venders, it is possible
   to connect everything and still have no communication
   between file servers and workstations.
   
   When there are several unknown variables, it is difficult
   to determine which component is broken. Use these tips to
   isolate the problem.
   
   
   
   • 
     
     Determine whether your equipment complies with the
     10Base-T or 100Base-TX standard.
     This is particularly important for hubs and switches.
     
   
   
   • 
     
     Connect a straight-through cable from the PC to the hub.
     The hub performs an internal crossover so that the
     signal can go from TD+ to RD+ and TD- to RD- (see How to
     Make Network Cables). When you look at an RJ-45
     connector from the front, pin 1 is identified on the
     left-hand side when the metal contacts are facing up.
     
   
   
   • 
     
     Make sure that the TD+ and TD- wires are twisted
     together, and that the RD+ and RD- wires are twisted
     together.
     
     Using wires from opposing pairs can cause signals to be
     lost. For a 100Base-TX cable, pins #1 and #2 , and #3
     and #6 must be on the same twisted strand.
   
   
   
   


10. 
    When
    there is doubt whether a hub is performing correctly, or
    if the impedance settings are in question, a crossover
    cable can help you isolate the failing component:
    
    
    
    
    • 
      
      Connect a file server and a client PC back to back with
      a crossover cable to verify that the NIC and network
      operating system are properly configured.
    
    
    • 
      To
      make a crossover cable, simple connect TD+ to RD+ and
      TD- to RD-. The cable performs the crossover that is
      usually performed by the hub. Make sure that two
      twisted-pair wires are used. If the file server and
      client PC function together as a small network, then
      either the existing cabling or the hub is the problem.
      
    
    
    • 
      If
      there is a proper crossover, the appropriate LED comes
      on. If there is a straight-through connection, the LED
      does not light. A blinking LED indicates that there is a
      polarity mismatch (that is, TD+ to RD- instead of TD+ to
      RD+).
    
    
    
    

 

Sound Card Troubleshooting

• 
  
  Microsoft Volume Control or your mixer program mute
  options and volume sliders.


• 
  
  Connect headphones to the stereo phone jack on your CD-ROM
  drive’s front panel; adjust the volume control settings on
  the drive. If there is sound from your headphones, check
  the CD audio cable connection from the CD-ROM drive to the
  audio card.


• 
  
  Ensure the speakers are properly connected to the audio
  card’s output connector.

Joystick port is not working


To troubleshoot, check the following:

• 
  The
  audio card joystick port conflicts with another joystick
  port in the system. Disable the audio card joystick port,
  and use the system’s joystick port.


• 
  The
  joystick drivers, MSJSTICK.DRV and VJOYD.VXD, may not be
  installed. Uninstall the joystick, then reinstall to load
  the drivers. The drivers should come with the driver CD or
  floppy diskette with your sound card.

Computer hangs or restarts during installation

A hardware conflict may cause the computer to hang or
restart during the installation procedure. Check the
following to resolve the conflict:

• 
  A
  hardware conflict with another device in your system.
  


• 
  
  Previously installed sound card hardware or software needs
  to be removed.


• 
  The
  audio card is not seated in the slot properly.
  


• 
  PCI
  bus mastering devices may be interfering with the
  operation of the audio card. Temporarily remove
  non-essential PCI bus mastering devices.

Resolving hardware conflicts

Hardware conflicts occur when two or more devices contend
for the same resources. Conflicts between your audio card
and another device may occur regarding the I/O address, IRQ
line, or DMA channel:

1. 
   
   Right-click the My Computer icon on your desktop,
   and select Properties. The System Properties dialog
   appears.


2. 
   
   Click the Device Manager tab. In the Device
   Manager, a plus sign(+) represents an expandable list of
   items. A minus sign (-) represents an expanded list. A
   circled exclamation mark denotes a conflict.


3. 
   
   Double-click Sound, video, game controllers. A list
   of multimedia devices appears.


4. 
   
   Select your audio card.


5. 
   
   Choose the Properties button.


6. 
   
   Click the Resources tab.


7. 
   
   Uncheck the Use automatic settings option.
   


8. 
   
   Change "Settings based on:" if alternate settings are
   available.


9. 
   
   Determine the conflict by reviewing the "Conflicting
   device list".


10. 
    
    Select the conflicting item in the "Resource Settings"
    list.


11. 
    
    Click the Change Settings button.


12. 
    Use
    the mouse to select a new setting.


13. 
    
    Select OK to close each of the properties windows, and
    restart your computer.

Audio card is not automatically detected

To manually configure your audio card for Windows 95/98:

1. 
   
   Click "Start" on the taskbar, and select Settings
   from the Start menu.


2. 
   
   Select Control Panel. The Control Panel group
   appears.


3. 
   
   Double-click the Add New Hardware icon. The Add New
   Hardware Wizard dialog appears.


4. 
   
   Select Next to continue.


5. 
   
   Choose Yes to have Windows search for new hardware,
   then select Next


6. 
   
   Select Next to continue.


7. 
   
   Select Finish, and follow the prompts to complete
   the new hardware installation.

CD does not automatically run when you insert it in the
drive

To enable the "Audio insert notification" feature:

1. 
   
   Right-click the My Computer icon on your desktop,
   and select Properties. The System Properties dialog
   appears.


2. 
   
   Click the Device Manager tab. A list of devices
   appears.


3. 
   
   Double-click CD-ROM, and select your CD-ROM drive.
   


4. 
   
   Choose the Properties button. The CD-ROM drive
   properties dialog appears.


5. 
   
   Choose the Settings tab.


6. 
   
   Click the "Auto insert notification" option to enable.
   


7. 
   
   Select OK until all Properties dialogs are closed, and
   restart Windows for the changes to take effect.

No sound is heard from speakers

Verify the following:

• 
  
  Check the Microsoft Volume Control or the Audio Mixer
  Program mute options and volume sliders.


• 
  
  Ensure the speakers are properly connected to the audio
  card’s output connector.


• 
  
  Check the volume control and power connection of the
  speakers, if they are amplified. (Refer to the speakers
  documentation for detailed information).


• 
  
  Ensure a hardware conflict does not exist between your
  audio card and another device in your system.


• 
  PCI
  bus mastering devices may be interfering with the
  operation of the audio card. Temporarily remove
  non-essential PCI bus mastering devices. If the device is
  a display card, upgrade the display card drivers, or set
  the card to the default Windows VGA mode.

If you are experiencing no sound only during audio CD
playback, see "No sound is heard from audio (music) CDs"
above.



Static sounds are heard in wave files

Check to see if the static sounds are heard in all wave
files. If the difficulty occurs only with certain games,
refer to the software manufacturer’s documentation. To
troubleshoot static sounds heard in all wave files:

• 
  Try
  different resource settings for the audio card, or set the
  card to use low DMA.


• 
  Move
  the audio card to another PCI slot. Feedback from the
  power supply or another device may be responsible.

 

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